Category: Persuasion

This fact about memory might seem depressing, but it is critical to useful recall.

Recalling one memory actually leads to the forgetting of other competing memories, a study confirms.

It is one of the single most surprising facts about memory, now isolated by neuroscience research.

Although many scientists believed the brain must work this way, it has been demonstrated.

Dr Maria Wimber, a cognitive neuroscientist and the study’s first author, said:

“Though there has been an emerging belief within the academic field that the brain has this inhibitory mechanism, I think a lot of people are surprised to hear that recalling memories has this darker side of making us forget others by actually suppressing them.”

The study monitored people’s brain activity while they tried to recall images they had been shown earlier.

By measuring activity in tiny sections of the brain, the neuroscientists were able to track individual memories.

They found that as one memory was recalled, others were suppressed.

Each subsequent time a target memory was recalled, it became stronger, while the others became weaker.

Dr Michael Anderson, a neuroscientist who co-led the study, said:

“People are used to thinking of forgetting as something passive.

Our research reveals that people are more engaged than they realize in shaping what they remember of their lives.

The idea that the very act of remembering can cause forgetting is surprising, and could tell us more about selective memory and even self deception.”

The process is believed to be critical to how memory and learning work.

Here’s how I’ve explained it previously:

“The idea that forgetting helps you learn seems counter-intuitive, but think of it this way: imagine if you created a brain that could remember and recall everything.

When this amazing brain was trying to remember where it parked the car, it would immediately bring to mind all the car parks it had ever seen, then it would have to sort through the lot.

Obviously the only one that’s of interest is the most recent.

And this is generally true of most of our memories.

Recent events are usually much more important than ones that happened a long time ago.

To make your super-brain quicker and more useful in the real world you’d have to build in some system for discounting old, useless info.

In fact, of course, we all have one of these super-brains with a discounting system: we call it ‘forgetting’.”

Dr Wimber suggested another situation in which forgetting is useful:

“Forgetting is often viewed as a negative thing, but of course, it can be incredibly useful when trying to overcome a negative memory from our past.

So there are opportunities for this to be applied in areas to really help people.”

He continued:

“It has significance for anything that relies on memory, but a really good example is that of eyewitness testimonies.

When a witness is asked to recall specific information about an event, and they are quizzed time and time again, it could well be to the detriment of associated memories — giving the impression that their memory is sketchy.

In fact, the repeated recall is causing them to forget these details.”

The study was published in the…

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The simple pleasures like a delicious meal or enjoying nature make most people happy, but the psychological mature often need more.

The search for meaning in life promotes greater happiness in those with high levels of psychological maturity, a study suggests.

People with advanced ego development tend to seek out more opportunities for personal growth, the nurturing of others and overcoming challenges.

However, the simple pleasures in life also play an important role in happiness for people at all levels of psychological maturity.

It is the psychologically mature, though, that benefit most from the search for meaning in life.

Paths to happiness

These conclusions come from a study that looked at how people’s paths to happiness change along with their psychological maturity.

The researchers used a theory of ego development introduced by the American psychologist Jane Loevinger.

As people mature psychologically, Loevinger proposed, they attain new strategies for establishing relationships, making sense of life experiences and regulating the self.

Essentially, people move from a pre-occupation with their own desires and emotions to understanding how they differ to others, cope with their feelings and make difficult decisions.

In other words, people slowly learn that they are not the only person in the world and everything does not revolve around what they want, feel or think.

Higher ego development

The researchers tested the ego development, or psychological maturity, of 360 people by using a projective sentence completion task.

These were then assessed by experts.

Dr Evgeny Osin, the study’s first author, explained the test:

“For example, completed sentences such as ‘Being with other people is cool’, ‘… is something I enjoy’ or ‘… is awful’ indicate an early stage of ego development.

In contrast, sentences like ‘Being with other people can be tiresome but often useful’ or ‘…means observing their personality and learning from them’ suggest a more advanced stage of ego development and higher complexity of self-perception.”

Participants were also asked about their levels of happiness and life satisfaction.

This provides an insight into people’s happiness, but only a limited one, explained Dr Osin:

“Emotional well-being functions like a thermometer: we can measure a person’s temperature to assess their overall state—does their life go well? —but the temperature alone is insufficient to make a diagnosis—what kind of life is it?”

Accepting new challenges

The results revealed that people at higher levels of ego development continue to seek out hedonic pleasures, such as pleasure (say, from eating, travelling, entertainment etc.) and comfort.

However, unlike those with lower levels of ego development, they also sought out more meaning in life.

They had a greater desire for personal development; to reach out and accept new challenges for themselves and explore.

Age, though, was no barrier to psychological immaturity, Dr Osin said:

“Interestingly, in adults, the level of ego development is no longer contingent upon age.

While some individuals progress to higher levels of psychological maturity as they age, others remain at the impulsive or self-protective stages without further advancement.

The study demonstrates that the meaning of life is not an abstract notion, but a real-life challenge that individuals encounter as they attain a higher level of personal maturity.

It is highly likely…

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A natural supplement for weight loss that is found in many healthy foods.

Taking certain supplements has been shown by research to increase weight loss.

Inulin, a natural fibre available as a supplement, can even quadruple weight loss, one study has found.

Inulin is a fibre found naturally in many foods, including leeks, wheat, onions, bananas and asparagus.

The natural fibre works by reducing appetite.

It has a creamy consistency and is sometimes used in the food industry as a substitute for fat.

Inulin is low in calories, high in fibre and it can improve the health of the digestion.

Researchers repeatedly find that an increase in fibre intake can help with weight loss.

A recent study on mice fed them either a high-fat diet on its own or a high-fat diet with a fibre supplement.

After four weeks on this regime, the results showed that inulin — the fibre supplement — reduced obesity resulting from weight gain.

The size of fat cells was also reduced by supplementation with inulin.

Dr. Andrew Gewirtz, study co-author, said:

“We found that manipulating dietary fiber content, particularly by adding fermentable fiber, guards against metabolic syndrome.

This study revealed the specific mechanism used to restore gut health and suppress obesity and metabolic syndrome is the induction of IL-22 expression.

These results contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms that underlie diet-induced obesity and offer insight into how fermentable fibers might promote better health.”

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of problems including excess belly fat, high blood pressure and low levels of ‘good’ cholesterol.

Inulin also reduced bad cholesterol levels and helped to keep blood sugar more stable.

The balance of the microbes in the gut was restored by taking inulin.

The study was published in the journal Cell Host & Microbe (Zou et al., 2018).

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This easy test reveals your personality accurately.

People are surprisingly accurate at judging their own personality, research finds.

Simply rating your own personality produces reasonably accurate results — certainly in line with how others likely view you.

When people judge themselves on the five basic personality traits, they are mostly accurate.

The five basic personality traits are:

1. Openness to experience: curiosity and inventiveness.
2. Conscientiousness: efficient and organised.
3. Extraversion: outgoing and energetic.
4. Agreeableness: friendly and compassionate.
5. Neuroticism: nervous and sensitive.

Have a go at rating yourself on these factors right now — you probably won’t be far off.

Simply give yourself a score out of 10 for each of the five factors.

Scoring 5 is average, 1 is very low and 10 is very high.

Clue: most people tend towards the middle of the scale.

Dr Brian Connelly, study co-author, said:

“It’s widely assumed that people have rose-coloured glasses on when they consider their own personality.

We found that isn’t necessarily the case, that on average people don’t show any trend in rating themselves more favourably than they’re rated by their peers.”

The conclusions come from 160 different studies of personality.

The researchers were looking for evidence of self-enhancement.

Dr Connelly explained the results:

“We make personality judgements of ourselves and others all the time, and a popular notion is that self-reports are more positively biased … but we find little support for that in the literature.”

One reason people may not self-enhance is that they are kept in line by others, Dr Connelly said:

“People are generally attuned to the impressions they convey.

Some people may stray toward self-enhancement, or in the opposite direction with self-effacement, but there are social costs associated with both that makes the general trend for people to be accurate.”

Next, Dr Connelly plans to look at self-enhancement at work:

“It’s important to know if self-enhancers perform worse on the job or have more trouble in school.

It could be they don’t internalize negative information about themselves or even totally forget about it altogether, both of which could have negative outcomes.”

The study was published in the journal  Psychological Science (Kim et al., 2018).

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Men and women cheat on their partners for different reasons, research finds.

Men who are risk-takers, easily excited sexually, or those that have performance anxiety are most likely to cheat, research finds.

For women, the pattern is different.

Women are motivated more by their levels of happiness and satisfaction with the relationship.

In other words: women who are unhappy are more likely to cheat.

Professor Robin Milhausen, who led the study, explained that most studies on infidelity have looked at demographic factors:

“Few studies on infidelity have gone beyond exploring demographics.

This research shows that demographic variables may not influence decision-making as much as previously thought — that personality matters more, especially for men.”

One-in-five unfaithful

The research involved almost one thousand men and women in monogamous relationships.

The results showed that 23 percent of men and 19 percent of women admitted being unfaithful at some point.

Men’s infidelity was predicted by personality factors like risk-taking.

Professor Milhausen said:

“People might seek out high-risk situations to help them become aroused, or they might choose to have sex with a partner outside of their regular relationship because they feel they have an ‘out’ if the encounter doesn’t go well — they don’t have to see them again.”

For women it was more about their satisfaction with the relationship.

Dissatisfaction made them twice as likely to cheat.

Professor Milhausen said:

“All kinds of things predict infidelity.

What this study says is that when you put all of those things together, for men, personality characteristics are so strong they bounce everything else out of the model.

For women, in the face of all other variables, it’s still the relationship that is the most important predictor.”

Professor Milhausen continued:

“Taken at face value, this research might seem to just support sexual stereotypes: Women are just concerned about the relationship, and, for men, once a cheater, always a cheater, regardless of their relationship.

But the caveat is that there are a lot of variants and factors that are not explained here that might impact whether someone cheats.”

The study was published in the journal Archives of Sexual Behavior (Mark et al., 2011).

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One handful of this food a day can help improve mood.

Eating walnuts can improve mood by 28 percent, research finds.

The conclusions come from the first study of its kind on walnuts.

Professor Peter Pribis, who led the study, said:

“In the past, studies on walnuts have shown beneficial effects on many health outcomes like heart disease, diabetes and obesity.

Our study was different because we focused on cognition, and in this controlled randomized trial (CRT) we measured mood outcomes in males and females.”

For the study, half of the participants ate walnuts, which had been ground into banana bread so they were impossible to see or taste.

The rest ate the banana bread unfortified with walnuts.

Participants in the study filled in a questionnaire about their moods.

Professor Pribis explained:

“We used a validated questionnaire called Profiles of Mood States (POMS).

It is one of the most widely used and accepted mood scales in studies on cognition.

The test has six mood domains: tension, depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, confusion and also provides a Total Mood Disturbance score (TMD).

The lower the TMD score the better the mood.”

After eight weeks of eating the banana bread with walnuts, men in the study saw a 28 percent improvement in their mood.

Professor Pribis explained:

“There was a meaningful, 28 percent improvement of mood in young men.

However we did not observe any improvement of mood in females.

Why this is we do not know.”

However, other studies have shown mood improvements among women after eating walnuts.

Walnuts contain all sorts of nutrients which may help to improve mood.

These include alpha-Linolenic acid, vitamin E, folate, polyphenols and melatonin.

Professor Pribis concluded that the research is clear:

“Eat more walnuts.

This is an easy intervention.

They’re not only good for your mood, but overall health as well.

The recommended amount is one handful per day.”

Walnut research

Previous studies have shown that:

The study was published in the journal Nutrients (Pribis, 2016).

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Up to 40 percent of the population have a vitamin D deficiency.

Taking vitamin D supplements is linked to losing four times as much weight, research finds.

People who took a vitamin D supplement also doubled the number of inches by which they reduced their waistlines.

As many as 40 percent of the population have a vitamin D deficiency.

A deficiency in this vitamin has been linked to increased inflammation the body.

Foods that are rich in vitamin D include oily fish and eggs, but most people get their vitamin D from the action of sunlight on the skin.

Being deficient in vitamin D is repeatedly linked to being overweight and obese.

The conclusions come from a study of 400 obese and overweight people, all of whom had a vitamin D deficiency.

All were put on a low-calorie diet, but they were split into three groups, with each given different amounts of vitamin D supplementation.

One had none, another had 3,000 IU per day and the remainder had 800 IU per day.

After six months, the results showed that those taking the highest amount of 3,000 per day had lost 12 pounds.

Those taking 800 IU per day had lost 8 pounds and those taking none lost just 2.6 pounds.

The study’s authors explain the results:

“The present data indicate that in obese and overweight people with vitamin D deficiency, vitamin D supplementation aids weight loss and enhances the beneficial effects of a reduced-calorie diet.”

The results also revealed that vitamin D helped people lose more from their waistlines.

The group taking 3,000 IU per day lost two inches in comparison to just 1 inch in the control group.

The researchers conclude:

“All people affected by obesity should have their levels of vitamin D tested to see if they are deficient, and if so, begin taking supplements.”

The study was presented at the European Congress on Obesity, 2015 (Vigna et al., 2015).

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Statins may reduce the risk of a heart attack by as much as one-third.

Statins are cholesterol-busting drugs that are designed to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke.

However, some people naturally worry about the side-effects these drugs may have, despite the fact that they are one of the most commonly prescribed drugs.

Statins may reduce the risk of a heart attack by as much as one-third.

Still, many refuse to take them because around 20 percent of people report side-effects.

Some of the most common side-effects are fatigue, muscle aches and joint pain.

Other common side-effects of statins are headaches, stomach pain, dizziness, constipation and feeling sick.

In addition, some people taking the cholesterol medication report pins and needles in their hands and feet.

The ‘nocebo’ effect

However, research suggests that some of these people may be experiencing the ‘nocebo’ effect.

The nocebo effect is when a person experiences side-effects due to the negative associations the drug has rather than because of its pharmaceutical effect.

One study has found that 90 percent of symptoms reported were from patients who were taking a placebo.

In other words, many people, despite taking a pill with no medicine in it, are still getting side-effects.

Dr James Howard, study co-author, explained:

“Statins are life-saving treatments that can help prevent the risk of heart attacks, strokes and cardiovascular disease.

Previous studies have shown that statins are safe and effective at preventing serious health conditions but some patients stop taking or refuse the drug due to reported side effects, potentially increasing their risk of heart attack and stroke in the long-term.

Our study suggests that the reported side effects of statins are not caused by the statin themselves but by the effect of taking a tablet.

Some of the side effects could also be from the typical aches and pains of getting older.

Our findings are significant because they are further evidence that side effects from statins are minimal.

These drugs play a significant role in keeping patients who are at risk of cardiovascular disease healthy.

One way to help encourage patients to take or stay on their medication is for doctors to talk to their patients about the nocebo effect.

In more severe cases patients could be referred for talking therapies.”

The study was published in the New England Journal of Medicine (Wood et al., 2020).

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B12 deficiency early in life can lead to these cognitive problems.

Difficulties with memory and thinking skills can be signs of vitamin B12 deficiency, research finds.

People with a deficiency in this vitamin can find it hard to recall memories or to concentrate.

A study finds that low levels of vitamin B12 in infancy would result in poor development and performance on visuospatial skills and social perception tasks later on.

Social perception and visuospatial abilities are part of cognitive functioning, like understanding information and responding to them, or making judgments about social rules.

In this study, children low in vitamin B12 at 5 years of age scored poorly in cognitive tests such as recognising other children’s feelings and solving puzzles.

Dr Ingrid Kvestad, the study’s first author, said:

“Our results clearly demonstrate associations between early vitamin B12 status and various measures on development and cognitive functioning, as for example the ability to interpret complex geometrical figures, and the ability to recognize other children`s emotions.”

Their findings suggest that vitamin B12 deficiency causes harm or delays the development of children’s brains.

Previous studies have found that vitamin B12 is important for the developing brain, learning, problem solving skills, and memory.

Dr Kvestad said:

“The number of children in low-income countries that do not develop according to their potential is large.

Our results indicate that correcting children`s vitamin B12 status early may be one measure to secure a healthy development for these vulnerable children.

We are currently in the process of confirming our results in randomized controlled trials.”

Red meat is a good source of vitamin B12, but in South Asia and countries with low incomes, animal products are limited, thus low B12 status is often seen in those population.

For this study, 500 infants in Nepal underwent a blood test to estimate their vitamin B12 levels.

Then five years later, these children underwent several cognitive development tests.

Dr Kvestad said:

“Most of the Nepalese children participating in the study did not have severely low levels of vitamin B12, but their levels were suboptimal, below the recommendations for best possible growth and development.

It’s like a hidden deficiency of the vitamin in these children’s bodies, making their cells work rigorously to signalize imminent danger.

Our study is one contribution in the big puzzle to understand the implications low B12 levels might have on small children’s cognitive development.”

The study was published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Kvestad et al., 2021).

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The traits are so powerful that they are linked to intelligence when measured almost 40 years later.

Insatiable curiosity, an active fantasy life, a sensitivity to emotions and an appreciation of art and beauty are all linked to high IQ, a study finds.

High IQ may have a particularly strong link to curiosity because intelligence creates a ‘cognitive hunger’ — a desire to think.

Over the years, higher IQ drives people to keep exploring new experiences to satiate this hunger.

Curiosity, along with sensitivity to emotions, appreciation of beauty and an active fantasy life are all aspects of the major personality trait called ‘openness to experience’.

Being open to experience is so powerful that it is linked to intelligence when measured almost 40 years later.

Children who scored higher on IQ tests at just 11-years-old were more open to experience when they were 50-years-old, the psychologists found.

The study’s authors explain their results:

“…childhood intelligence is indeed positively associated with adult trait Openness, even when it was assessed almost four decades earlier when participants were at 11 years.

Intelligence may influence the development of personality in that intelligent people develop habits to satisfy their curiosity and ‘‘cognitive hunger’’ which are an essential ingredient of Openness.”

The conclusions come from a huge study of 17,415 people born in the UK in one week in March 1958.

Over the following 50 years they were given various personality and intelligence tests.

Children with higher IQs were more open to experience because of higher motivation at school, greater support from their families and higher social status, the researchers found.

They explain how these factors fit together:

“Parents of higher socioeconomic status may foster children’s trait Openness by providing better resources such as choosing good schools and cultural environment (theaters, museums, traveling abroad, etc.); intelligent children tend to use more mental activities (such as abstract ideas, learning new
vocabularies, or math formulas) than those who are less intelligent; school settings (quality of teaching, good facilities) may enhance pupils to engage more in school learning.

All these three factors may influence educational and
occupational achievement, which in turn, may increase
the scores on Openness.”

In other words, they believe that it is a higher IQ that mainly drives the development of greater openness to experience.

The study was published in the Journal of Individual Differences (Furnham & Cheng, 2016).

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